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“Bad research isn’t new,” Moser points out. “LLMs have amplified the problem dramatically, but there was already tremendous pressure to publish and produce, and there were many bad papers using questionable or fake data, because higher education has been organized around the production of knowledge-shaped objects, measured in citations, conferences, and grants.”

Craig Callender, a philosophy professor at the University of California San Diego and president of the Philosophy of Science Association, agrees with that assessment, observing that “the appearance of legitimacy to non-existent journals is like the logical end product of existing trends.” There are already journals, he explains, that accept spurious articles for profit, or biased ghost-written research meant to benefit the industry that produced it. “The ‘swamp’ in scientific publishing is growing,” he says. “Many practices make existing journals [or] articles that aren’t legitimate look legitimate. So the next step to non-existent journals is horrifying but not too surprising.”

Adding AI to the mix means that “swamp” is growing fast, Callender says. “For instance, all of this gets compounded in a nearly irreversible way with AI-assisted Google searches. These searches will only reinforce the appearance that these journals exist, just as they currently reinforce a lot of disinformation.”