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the Supreme Court ruled that unassimilated Indians were not U.S. citizens. In 1889, an attempt to protect Black voting made lynching spike, and in 1890, Mississippi wrote a new constitution preventing Black men from voting, on grounds other than race. All but one state in the country, Massachusetts, followed suit, adding poll taxes, literacy clauses, and so on to limit participation in government by immigrants as well as by Black and Brown Americans. The attempt to disenfranchise Black, Brown, poor, and female Americans was, in part, a response to their demonstration that they embraced the characteristics of the American dream as the Republicans had set it out during the war. Indeed, in the late nineteenth century marginalized people increasingly defined that dream for white Americans. When Black southerners began to move to the West after the “redemption” of . . .